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The problem arises when this antioxidant defense is overwhelmed or depleted: *Excess HO damages thyroid follicular cells, triggering inflammation and immune activation *Oxidized thyroid proteins become neoantigens - foreign-looking molecules that the immune system attacks, initiating or amplifying autoimmune thyroid disease *Lipid peroxidation in thyroid cell membranes disrupts hormone synthesis and cellular integrity *Chronic oxidative stress accelerates thyroid cell apoptosis and fibrosis - the hallmarks of Hashimoto's progression A landmark review published in Antioxidants (MDPI, 2021) - "The Influence of Oxidative Stress on Thyroid Diseases" - confirmed that decreased glutathione levels appear to be a distinctive parameter related to the activation and development of oxidative stress in Hashimoto's thyroiditis, and that antioxidant interventions represent a promising therapeutic avenue for autoimmune thyroid conditions

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Propionate Producing Bacteria of the Gut The primary human gut bacteria that produce propionate via the succinate pathway include those within the Bacteroides genus (Bacteroidetes phylum), the Dialister genus (Firmicutes phylum), the Veillonella genus (Firmicutes phylum), as well as Phascolarctobacterium succinatutens (Firmicutes phylum)

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some studies indicate that under chronic iron overload conditions, THP-1 monocyte-derived macrophages often display M2-type characteristics with downregulated M1-type macrophage markers (100)